Early Arctic exploration Jeannette Expedition

map of north pole, gerardus mercator, published 1606, showing pole within open polar sea .

european exploration of arctic regions began in 16th century, searches new routes pacific via northeast , northwest passages. possibility of third route, directly across north pole, raised geographer richard hakluyt. explorers had little success in finding these routes, made important geographical discoveries. in time, search trade routes became secondary prestige objective of reaching north pole itself, or @ least of registering farthest north . in 1773 british naval expedition under captain constantine phipps sought route pole 7 islands, found way impassably blocked ice. on may 28, 1806, whitby whaling captain william scoresby achieved new record northern latitude of 81°30 north of svalbard before being stopped ice.

the prevalent theory of polar geography throughout period of temperate open polar sea surrounding north pole. observable southward drift of arctic ice thought result pushing effect of warmer water. according historian hampton sides, despite lack of scientific evidence theory gathered logic of own ... no amount of contrary evidence dislodge collective imagination . fact northbound voyages had, sooner or later, been stopped ice rationalized through belief undiscovered sea encircled in ring or annulus of ice which, thought, penetrated via 1 of several warm-water gateways or portals. initial quest north pole became search 1 of these portals.

after british naval expeditions in 1818 , 1827–28 had probed north of spitsbergen , found no sign of supposed polar sea, quest in abeyance 25 years. in 1850s, search lost franklin expedition generated rash of incursions canadian arctic. these forays, particularly of edward inglefield in 1852, emerged theory smith sound, northerly channel between greenland , ellesmere island, might 1 of fabled gateways polar sea. brought succession of expeditions area: elisha kent kane in 1853–55, isaac israel hayes in 1860–61, charles francis hall in 1872–74, , george nares in 1875–76. no gateway found, although both kane , hayes claimed, mistakenly, have seen open polar sea distance.