History Alodia

1 history

1.1 origins
1.2 christianization , peak
1.3 decline , fall

1.3.1 reasons of decline
1.3.2 destruction of kingdom


1.4 aftermath

history
origins

long before alodia becomes tangible kingdom, several similar-sounding variations of name appear in various sources: kushitic stela dating reign of nastasen (late 4th century bc) mentions region called alut, though concrete localization can not specified. several centuries later, pliny elder includes alwa on list of towns in meroitic kush, placing somewhere south of meroe, yet again offers no concrete location, therefore making relation later kingdom guesswork.

the last ancient source, ge ez inscription of aksumite king ezana, lived in mid 4th century ad, important one. first mentions brick-made city named alwa, assumed located near confluence of nile , atbara. town alwa, however, mentioned in wider context, in particular in apparently punitive aksumite expedition against warlike noba (historical term nubians), threatened fringes of aksumite kingdom north of tekeze river (the ethiopian part of atbara river). inscription describes how aksumite expedition defeated tekeze nubians , pushed westwards until reached confluence of nile , atbara, plundered several kushite towns (one of them being alwa). not towns in hands of kushites though. instead, account makes clear in fact, heartland of kingdom of kush partially occupied nubians. in conclusion, ezana inscription proves how nubians controlled significant parts of modern sudan mid 4th century, indicating kingdom of kush in advanced state of decay.

since archaeological evidence suggests kingdom of kush ceased exist around mid of 4th century, aksumite expeditions thought directly responsible fall, although still not 100% proven. may, doesn t seem if aksums presence in middle nile valley overly long-lasting. destruction of centralized state controlling entire middle nile valley, nubians managed seize power entirely, founding own, yet pagan, chief- , kingdoms out of ashes of kush. era of transformation known post-meroitic period (c. 350-550). while formation of nobatia (early 5th century) , makuria (c. 500 both studied , understood, same can t said alodia. seems clear several aspects of meroitic culture largely dismissed during period, pyramids , mastabas (which replaced tumuli), wheel-made pottery , faiences. when alodia came existence unknown, as when , why soba became capital. archaeology suggests soba did not become major urban center until later post-meroitic period, perhaps during 6th century . in sixth century, more precisely around year 569, when alodia steps light of history central sudanese kingdom on edge of christianization.

christianization , peak

the events around christianization of alodia have been described john of ephesus in considerable detail. southernmost of 3 nubian kingdoms, alodia last converted christianity. if john correct, alodian king aware of baptisms of nobadia in 543 (miaphysite branch) , makuria in around 568/569 (melkite branch). describes how alodian king sent delegation king of nobadia, requesting bishop sent him instruct people , baptize them . request granted in 580, leading baptism of king, family , local nobility. event marked end of post-meroitic period , dawn of medieval or christian period of central sudan. how fast , how deep christianity spread among alodians still hard say. possible after conversion, several temples converted churches, in musawwarat es-sufra , meroe. nevertheless, must expected in alodia, christianization of rural population have proceeded slowly, if occurred @ all.

tombstone of king david soba.

after john of ephesus, historians remain silent alodia several centuries. 60 years after baptizement of alodian nobility, in 640-641, arabs conquered egypt byzantine empire, cutting of christian nubia spiritual big brother in constantinople. 2 muslim attacks makuria, @ time may have been unified nobatia already, followed (642 & 652), both repelled. in aftermath, both makuria , arabs agreed sign baqt, peace treaty included yearly exchange of gifts other socio-economic regulations between arabs , nubians. alodia explicitly excluded treaty. meanwhile, arabs started settle on western coast of red sea, founding ports of aydhab in 632-634, badi in 637 , suakin time afterwards (first mention in 10th century).

in 9th entury arab historian al-yaqubi describe alodia first time. while short, attests 300 years after first mention, alodia large kingdom soba capital. says power above makurias. after al-yaqubi comes ibn hawqal, traveller , historian of later 10th century. travelled through alodia himself, therefore gathering information firsthand. allowed him describe kingdom in comparatively great detail, discussing territorial extension, landscapes, economy, inhabitants , government. said, that: prosperous part of country (nubia) territory of alwa, has uninterrupted chain of villages , continuous strip of cultivated lands . current king, claimed, named asabiyus (probably arabic distortion of eusebius), inherited throne uncle astabanus (stephanos) due martilineal succession. contemporary ibn hawqal lived ibn sulaym al-aswani, fatimid ambassador sent makuria, travel alodia. while original work had been lost, quoted later historians al maqrizi. hawqals report relatively detailed, focusing again on geography, economy , habitants, while neglecting political history. interesting information complement hawqal alodia more extensive , powerful makuria, having larger army. made clear @ time, soba prospering town fine buildings, , extensive dwellings , churches full of gold , gardens . after al-aswani there gap of several centuries. 2 alodian kings, basil , paul, appear in 12th century arabic letters qasr ibrim.

the last historian referring alodia in detail armenian abu salih, living in around 1200. confirmed alodia still large kingdom, housing around 400 churches. interesting remark habitants of soba still christians.

in conclusion, , summarizing both written sources archaeology, 9th-12th century can considered golden age of soba , alodian kingdom.

decline , fall
reasons of decline

remains of columns church c in soba.

after abu-salih came decline: @ soba, no pottery or glassware, neither native nor imported, dating beyond 13th century identified. 2 churches apparently destroyed during 13th century, albeit later resurrected. had been suggested alodia under attack of people called damadim, african people originated in border region of modern sudan , south sudan, along bahr al ghazal. soba might have been conquered @ time, suffering occupation , destruction. according al-maghrebi, attack of damadim on nubia (and abyssinia) occurred in 1220, why called tartars of black , referring mongols swept on persia @ same time. external pressure might have encouraged alodian kings relocate capital, in later 13th century recorded al-harrani capital not soba, large town called waylula. shortly after al-harrani, geographer al-dimashqi claims capital of alodia named kusa, crawford identifies zankor in western kordofan. in late 13th century occurred other invasion unspecified people south. according oral traditions, dinka began migrate out of central gezira modern south sudan during era of alodian decline.

in north, there militant mamluks, seized power in egypt ayyubids in 1250 , became active on southern frontier. makuria became target several invasions , interventions during 13th , 14th century, apparently there expedition east sudan in 1316-17 too, chasing down arab brigandines along atbara river way jebel kassala in taka. on way mamluks plundered al-abwab food, which, former northernmost alodian prvince, recorded splinter kingdom independent alodia since 1276 , attested second half of 14th century. concrete circumstance of secession , relation alodia afterwards remain unknown.

apart of these active interventions nubian affairs, mameluks put lot pressure on christians inside borders. patriarch of alexandria forced cancel dispatchment of priests alodia, problematic, since was, other coptic nations of africa, dependent upon egyptian bishops. consequential deterioration of christian faith attested portuguese sources 16th century. traveller , companion of francisco Álvares, visited nubia in around 1500, states nubians considered christian, lacking in christian instruction had no actual knowledge of faith. in 1520, nubian ambassadors reached ethiopia , asked emperor priests. claimed no more priests reach nubia because of wars between muslims, leading decline of christianity in land.

there economical factor in alodia s downfall. 10th-12th century east african coast saw rise of new trading states (like example sultanate of mogadishu , sultanate of kilwa), not traded similar goods nubia, transport them way faster , cheaper via maritime routes, while alodia dependent on slow , expensive caravans distribute goods among arabic world (for more details on alodia s trade relations see foreign trade ).

an event of major significance nubia described often-quoted 14th century scholar ibn khaldun, records large-scaled migration of arab tribes known juhayna sudan:

albeit not mentioned here, large amount of these arabs have originated upper egypt well, escaping mameluke pressure pouring sudan after detonation of makurian authority during 14th century , continuing until 16th century. has been suggested nomads profited plague, which, during mid 14th century, might have infected , killed many sedentary nubians, not bedouins. arabs have intermixed remaining local population , gradually took control on land , people, benefiting large numbers in spreading culture. main goal of migrations pastoral plains of butana , gezira, i.e. heartland of alodia. apparently, nomads reached blue nile valley in 14th century, while white nile valley said have been conquered alodia during 15th century. southernmost point reached arab settlers aba island. in 1474, arabs founded town arbaji @ blue nile, develop important center of commerce , islamic learning. despite rapid arab infiltration, seems alodia still managed enforce authority @ least on arab groups, forcing them pay tribute. second half of 15th century, arabs have settled in of central sudanese nile valley except of area around soba itself. meanwhile, nubians south of dongola have been described in state of total political fragmentation:

destruction of kingdom

the events around fall of alodia described various sudanese sources , 1 of few moments of alodian political history have been preserved. mentioned sources funj chronicle (c. 1870), tabaqat dayfallah (c. 1700), oral traditions of abdallab tribe , supposed documents archive of shendi presented sudanese historian al fahal al faki al tahir, translated english giovanni vantini. while there discrepancies, final chapter of alodia can reconstructed this:

the typical scarification of abdallab tribe, traces origin down abdallah jamma ( gatherer )

soba, apparently alodian capital yet again, recorded have been attacked arabs twice. first attack in 1476, supposedly end tyranny of alodian kings. has been interpreted religious-economic motive, muslim arabs did not accept ruled christian king longer , had pay taxes him. arabs won war , killed king named afaiq . arabs divided conquered blue nile on themselves, ja alin getting north of karkoj, while juhayna got south of it. on time, however, tensions between juhayna , ja alin arose, while nubians regather strength. juhayna emir abdallah al-qurayn made pact amara dunqas, leader of funj, promising him submission help. latter overran of gezira, kordofan , eastern sudan, founded sennar , established sultanate of sennar. meanwhile, alodian patriarch said have assembled multiethinical army consisting of nubians, beja , ethiopians, prepared fight sake of religion . in 1509 came last battle on soba. under leadership of abdallah al-qurayn , aided funj army, arabs managed defeat christian army encircling , killing patriarch. army killed or captured , soba, remaining 4 churches, plundered , burnt down. bejeweled crown of alodian kings seized, famous necklace of pearls , rubbies.

the funj tradition can not compete tradition in terms of details. in arab tradition, mentioned amara dunqas convinced abdallah come down mountain gebel moya (central gezira), to, arabs, wage war against alodia. alodia got destroyed, albeit funj chronicle , taqabat dayfallah contradicting each other: destroyed , soba became temporary capital until 1504, when sennar founded. mentioned abdallah became vasal of amara dunqas.

what seems clear sobas destruction absolute, turning deserted place owls , jinn lived. in 1523, jewish traveller david reubeni described soba ruined, locals living in wooden dwellings. remained inhabited @ least until 17th century. in sudanese oral traditions, soba quoted symbol of total annihilation.

aftermath

melik ( kinglet ) of fazughli, seen frédéric cailliaud. on head wears taqiya umm qarnein.

the funj chronicle claims, after alodia destroyed, there occurred nubian exodus kordofan , fazughli. based on oral traditions, historian spaulding suggests, these refugees found kingdom in fazughli. said have been strong, having plenty of horses , fine gold . maintained christian faith, @ least among ruling nubian elite, would, on time, become known hamaj. in 1615, kingdom said have been conquered ethiopian emperor susenyos, annexed sennar in 1685. in sennar, hamaj become 1 of dominant ethnicities. in 1761-62, seized control entirely, ruling until turko-egyptian invasion of 1821. however, spaulding later warned historicity of tradition of post-alodian exile state may questionable .

nevertheless, tradition, alodian legacy can summarized this: while nubians distinct ethnicity between aswan , al dabbah (south of dongola) day, nubians further upstream underwent process of arabization. between al dabbah , conjunction of blue , white nile, adopted arabic language tribal identity of arab ja alin without actual intermixing. among them, nubian language faded away around 300–200 years ago, villages far south shendi retaining original language deep 19th century. linguistic traces of regions nubian past can found today: sudanese arabic, succeeded nubian language, contains many words of nubian origin, in semantic fields of farming, fauna , handicrafts. place names of nubian origin can apparently found far south blue nile state. christianity outlived alodia in shape of apotropaic rituals until 20th century. such rituals, including crosses , resembling christening, have been recorded in gezira, fazughli, kordofan, nuba mountains , darfur. other legacy of christian nubia crowns features resembling bovine horns, called taqiya umm qarnein , worn diverse sudanese petty kings, funj kings themselves. compared christian predecessors, more stylized , made of textiles. tradition of shaving head of king upon coronation stems christian traditions well.