Background Jeannette Expedition

1 background

1.1 arctic exploration
1.2 august petermann
1.3 george de long
1.4 james gordon bennett

background
early arctic exploration

map of north pole, gerardus mercator, published 1606, showing pole within open polar sea .

european exploration of arctic regions began in 16th century, searches new routes pacific via northeast , northwest passages. possibility of third route, directly across north pole, raised geographer richard hakluyt. explorers had little success in finding these routes, made important geographical discoveries. in time, search trade routes became secondary prestige objective of reaching north pole itself, or @ least of registering farthest north . in 1773 british naval expedition under captain constantine phipps sought route pole 7 islands, found way impassably blocked ice. on may 28, 1806, whitby whaling captain william scoresby achieved new record northern latitude of 81°30 north of svalbard before being stopped ice.

the prevalent theory of polar geography throughout period of temperate open polar sea surrounding north pole. observable southward drift of arctic ice thought result pushing effect of warmer water. according historian hampton sides, despite lack of scientific evidence theory gathered logic of own ... no amount of contrary evidence dislodge collective imagination . fact northbound voyages had, sooner or later, been stopped ice rationalized through belief undiscovered sea encircled in ring or annulus of ice which, thought, penetrated via 1 of several warm-water gateways or portals. initial quest north pole became search 1 of these portals.

after british naval expeditions in 1818 , 1827–28 had probed north of spitsbergen , found no sign of supposed polar sea, quest in abeyance 25 years. in 1850s, search lost franklin expedition generated rash of incursions canadian arctic. these forays, particularly of edward inglefield in 1852, emerged theory smith sound, northerly channel between greenland , ellesmere island, might 1 of fabled gateways polar sea. brought succession of expeditions area: elisha kent kane in 1853–55, isaac israel hayes in 1860–61, charles francis hall in 1872–74, , george nares in 1875–76. no gateway found, although both kane , hayes claimed, mistakenly, have seen open polar sea distance.

august petermann

august petermann

the smith sound route not favored everyone; among rejected leading geographer , map-maker august petermann, gotha in germany, known sage of gotha . firm believer in open polar sea theory, believed portal found following gulf stream, swept coast of norway unexplored arctic regions. peterman thought current weaken or penetrate protective ice ring, , sturdily-built steamer following course of stream might able break through supposed polar sea.

after 2 expeditions sponsored petermann—the german north polar expedition of 1869 led carl koldewey, , austro-hungarian north pole expedition of 1872 under karl weyprecht , julius von payer—had followed separate branches of gulf stream failed break through ice, petermann grew dispirited. in year before took own life in 1878 transferred advocacy kuro siwo, pacific ocean current analyzed in 1850s hydrographer silas bent. petermann followed bent in believing branch of kuro siwo flowed through bering strait, , might powerful enough create path polar sea. @ time no 1 had attempted reach polar sea route.

george de long

george washington de long usn

in july 1873 u.s. navy dispatched uss juniata greenland, search survivors polaris expedition had disintegrated after death of leader, charles francis hall. juniata s second-in-command george de long, 28-year-old graduate of united states naval academy, making first visit arctic. ice conditions prevented juniata advancing beyond upernavik; de long volunteered take ship s tender, small steamer named little juniata, in hope of finding survivors @ cape york, further 400 nautical miles (740 km) north.

the attempt failed; little juniata faced extreme weather conditions, , forced retreat few miles cape york. de long returned juniata in mid-august, having found no trace of polaris crew (who had meanwhile been rescued scottish whaler ravenscraig), experience had profoundly affected outlook. having earlier described greenland coast in letter wife emma dreary land of desolation ... hope may never find myself cast away in such god-forsaken place , returned home captivated arctic. emma later wrote: polar virus in blood , not let him rest .

the abortive little juniata mission brought de long public notice, , saw himself possible leader of next u.s. arctic expedition. approached henry grinnell, philanthropic shipping magnate had funded several previous expeditions. grinnell not prepared offer financial support, instead advising de long approach james gordon bennett jr., owner , publisher of new york herald , known sponsor of bold schemes. de long met bennett in new york in 1874; newspaperman impressed de long, , assured him arctic ambitions have enthusiastic support of herald. in meantime de long had applied navy department arctic command, request informed receive due attention .

james gordon bennett

james gordon bennett jr., had succeeded father proprietor of new york herald in 1866. had won renown in 1872, when reporter henry morton stanley, sent bennett africa in search of british missionary-explorer david livingstone, cabled livingstone had been found. bennett knew news value of arctic exploration; 2 herald reporters had accompanied juniata, , in 1874 bennett helping fund british sailor allen young , decommissioned former gunboat pandora, on 1 of final franklin searches.

bennett interested in petermann s theories, , in 1877 traveled gotha discuss possible arctic routes geographer. petermann thought providing best path pole, passage through bering strait using kuro siwo enable investigation of unexplored, barely glimpsed land mass known since 1867 wrangel s land . theorized land might form part of transpolar continent, connected greenland; if so, might provide alternative, land-based route pole should expedition fail find portal polar sea. idea , told bennett, if 1 door not open, try . offered bennett full use of maps , charts.

petermann s advice convinced bennett new american polar venture should go ahead. on return gotha, cabled de long requesting him seek leave of absence navy, , begin search ship suitable arctic exploration using petermann s bering strait route.